Türkiye Jeoloji Bülteni

Abstract: Humanities efforts to exist in nature have brought man from being a part of the ecosystem to the point ofshaping nature. This struggle of humanity undoubtedly causes destruction at different scales in nature. Traces ofthis destruction are recorded by geological processes. Negative environmental changes caused by human effectson nature are called anthropogenic pollution today. The beginning of the most serious scientific studies to describethe permanent traces of man on nature dates back to the mid-19th century. However, this awareness is known tobe much older, especially in the works of ancient Greek and Roman philosophers and writers. Many researchersargue that with the introduction of scientific methods to investigate these effects, the Holocene should be separatedfrom the Anthropocene with a time boundary as a new geological series. Although this theory was mentioned manytimes in the 19th century, it was later forgotten. It returned to the agenda since the early 2000s and its popularity has increased. After the suggestion of this time-boundary separation, scientific studies about the existence and thebeginning of the Anthropocene have considerably increased, and it has become a multidisciplinary issue discussedby many researchers. There are two main factors that need to be addressed in order to clarify and elaborate theconcepts of anthropogene and Anthropocene in the future. These are; (1) problems in setting standards for measuringanthropogenic effects especially geogenic and the steps to be taken to solve this, and (2) the necessity to producestudies that can be supported by absolute age data rather than conceptual discussion of the temporal separationof the Anthropocene. Scientific studies in different regions where these elements are taken in consideration willundoubtedly reveal the extent of the anthropogenic effect and the temporal separation of the Anthropocene boundaryin a much more realistic manner.

Abstract: The main purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of increasing human activities (agriculture,urbanization, settlement, wars, industrialization) and cold climatic periods that occurred pre-and post-1800 in andaround the western Baltic Sea. To investigate this, sediment box cores were collected onboard the R/V SENCKENBERGin 1978 from two bights of Eckernförder (EB) and Geltinger (GB). Vibration hammer technology was used to obtainundisturbed core sediments and grain size, carbonate, organic carbon, element, SEM-EDAX and Pb-210 datinganalysis were carried out. The results were then interpreted using statistical methods.The greyish to black colored mud (“schlick”) sediments deposited under suboxic to anoxic. conditions in the bightsmainly consists of silicate-aluminosilicate minerals. Carbonate contents in both cores are low (generally <3%) but EB sediments are finer grained than the GB sediments. Regional characteristic source and depositional conditionscaused the accumulation of high organic matter (2-6%) in core sediments from both bights. Major elementconcentrations (Si, Al, K, Mg, Fe, P) largely do not display any significant changes throughout the cores and indicatelithogenic-geogenic sources. The downcore changes in Mn, Co and in part, P, concentrations can be related tosediment diagenesis in the cores. Cr, Ni, Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd and Hg contents showed increases towards the upper coresections. The contamination factors obtained from division of metal concentrations in the upper sections to thosefrom the lowest sections of the cores were 18-76 for Hg (very high contamination), 3.5-4.7 for Cd (considerable, highcontamination), 2.1-2.9 for Zn and Pb (low to moderate pollution), and 0.7-1.7 for Cu, Cr, Ni, Co, Mn and Fe (verylow to no contamination). In particular, high contamination factors (CF>2) showed the effects of anthropogenicactivities present in the region since the 1800s. The presence of coal, ash and metallic slag particles in the sandfractions of the upper 4-22 cm core sections also confirmed anthropogenic effects in the two bights.

Abstract: Acid mine drainage (AMD) generated by anthropogenic effects has low pH and contains highconcentrations of metals, sulfate, dissolved and suspended solids. The Etili coal mine, located within the Çan CoalBasin, northwestern Turkey, has been facing environmental problems caused by AMD since the 1980s. As a result ofmining activities, fine grain size mine waste with high sulfur content is distributed over large areas around the coalmines and accelerates the AMD formation process. In this study, the aim was to determine the effect of using thefluidized bed thermal power plant waste of fly ash to neutralize AMD and reduce environmental effects caused bymine wastes at the laboratory scale. Based on the results of chemical analysis, paste pH and acid-base accountingtests, it was identified that mine wastes need to be mixed with at least 30% fly ash by weight in order to preventAMD production. The leach tests prepared according to the determined optimum mixing ratio showed that as the pHvalue of leachate increased, the electrical conductivity, metal (Al, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn) and sulfate concentrationsdecreased. At the end of 24 h, the metal concentrations of the leachate fell below the permissible limits in the Turkish Water Pollution Control Regulation and there was no increase in metal concentrations of the leachate during 720 h.At the end of 720 h, reductions of 72-97% were identified for the metal concentrations in leachate. In this research,it was determined that the environmental effects of AMD could be minimized by using fly ash. 

Abstract: The Gulf of Erdek is located in southwest Marmara Sea. Average and maximum depths are around 34 and55 m, respectively. The study area is less polluted by pollutants of anthropogenic origin than the other gulfs (Izmit,Gemlik) in the Marmara Sea. The main source of fresh water and sediments in the gulf are the Gönen and KarabigaRivers. These rivers, which receive pollution load from domestic, industries (ceramic factories and leather industry)and agricultural waste water from Gönen and Biga towns, drain in the Marmara Sea. In this study, distribution ofhistorical heavy metal contamination derived from anthropogenic and/or natural origin was investigated in a 174-cm long core sediment collected from the mouth of the Gönen River at -16 m water depth. Heavy metal enrichmentin the region was determined by analysing heavy metal (Cu, Pb, As, Zn, Cr and Co), grain size and total organiccarbon (TOC) contents. According to the results obtained, average Cu, Pb, Zn, Cr and Co values in the core are 16,68, 10, 26, 111 and 4 mg.kg-1, respectively. The mean distribution of gravel, sand, silt and clay are 0.1, 1, 28.5 and70.4%, respectively. TOC values range between 0.5 and 1.9%. Enrichment factor (EF) was calculated throughout the core to reveal the pollution history of the study area more clearly. Mean EF values through the vertical profile ofthe core are EF-Pb 12.2, EF-As 4.8, EF-Cr 3.3, EF-Zn 1.1, EF-Cu 0.9, and EF-Co 0.7. Based on Sutherland’s (2000)enrichment factor contamination categories, core sediments were moderately contaminated with Cr and As, andcontaminated significantly with Pb. The study area was not contaminated with Co, Cu and Zn. The EF-Pb, EF-Asand EF-Cr values indicate that untreated anthropogenic waste water with agricultural and industrial origin (leatherindustry) was supplied in  the gulf.

Abstract: The Eastern Black Sea Basin is the highest rainfall area in Turkey with an average rainfall of 1300mm. However, this region is one of the poorest regions in terms of spring and groundwater potential due to itstopography having extremely high slopes, and impermeable-less permeable rocks exposed in the basin. Alluvium,which is carried by streams flowing from north to south along the Eastern Black Sea coastline, are important interms of groundwater. Alluvium, of which thickness and width decrease from north to south, has a length of 1-16 kmand a width of 50-1500 m. Water is provided from wells that are drilled in alluvium with a thickness of up to 40 m.According to DSI (2015) data, the static water level is between 0.3 and 1 m, while the dynamic water level is between5 and 15 m. The volume of water stored in the coastal aquifers of the Eastern Black Sea Basin is 238 hm3. Some of these aquifers are still used and some were used in the past as drinking water sources. However, in recent years,construction such as industrial sites, quarries, coal storage and packaging facilities, warehouses and buildings ofsome public institutions and organizations has been increasing on these aquifers, which form partially flat areasbetween narrow valleys. This construction adversely affects both the quantity and quality of shallow groundwaterstored in alluvium. The aquifers are the most important groundwater sources in the basin and are used to supplydrinking and potable water for 4 cities. Değirmendere and Taşlıdere aquifers, which provided drinking-potablewater in the past, were completely under stress by urbanization and the use of groundwater was terminated. Theurban activities on Melet, Civil, Pazarsuyu (Ordu) and Batlama and Keşap (Giresun) aquifers, which are locatedin the settlement area, continue to increase. The aquifers of Curi, Yağlıdere, Gelevera, Akhisar, Yanbolu, Baltacı,İyidere and Fırtına are less affected by urban activities. Among them, Curi, Yağlıdere, İyidere and Fırtına aquifersare aquifers with high groundwater capacities. In order to be able to use the Eastern Black Sea coastal aquifers formany years, it is necessary to protect them in terms of quality and recharging.

Abstract: The study area is located in Pertek town in Tunceli province in Eastern Anatolia. The geology of the studyarea is very important for the geodynamic evolution of the Eastern Taurus. Geological formations in the studyarea are Paleozoic Keban metamorphics, Upper Cretaceous Harami Formation, Middle-Upper Eocene Kırkgeçit Formation, Upper Miocene Karabakir Formation, and Quaternary alluvium, from the oldest to the youngest,respectively. Hydrogeological units were divided in three units in accordance with lithological, structural andhydrogeological properties. The basement of the study area of sandstone, marbles and dolomitic marbles in theKeban metamorphic rocks are highly fractured and karstified and act as the main reservoir in particular for thermalwaters in the study area. Kırkgeçit and Karabakır Formations occur as barrier rocks in the geothermal area due toimpermeable properties. Some levels of limestone units within the Keban metamorphics are aquifers for freshwater.Alluvium is the most important and suitable unit for cold groundwater production. In the study area, streams andrivers flow from southwest to northeast towards Keban Dam Lake. The lake is very important in the region from thepoint of view of hydroelectric power production, flood control, and irrigation.The thermal and mineral waters generally have high mineral contents. When they are discharged onto the surface,they can cause contamination in surface water, ground water, and of soil. Because of the fact that the water resourcesin the region are used for drinking and irrigation purposes, the quality of the water is evaluated within the scopeof this study. For this reason, water and sediment samples were analyzed for boron, arsenic and other contaminant(Pb, Fe, Sb, Sn and Hg) substances to measure the contamination. The results acquired from the analysis of watersamples suggest that concentrations of B, As and Pb in some of the samples exceed the limits of the TSE drinkingwater standards (>100 ppb). Fe concentration is 2.16 ppm, Hg and Sb concentrations are also 0.05 ppm. Moreover,some of the sediment samples collected from thermal springs in Singeç Creek are contaminated with B, As, Sb, Hgand Pb and other elements sourced from geothermal fluids. In this study, the geochemical evaluation of the presenceof B, As, and other contaminants (Pb, Fe, Sb, Sn) derived from geothermal activities within sediment and water inthe Pertek Geothermal Field and surrounding area were discussed.

Abstract: Kestanbol geothermal field, located in the ancient town of Alexandria Troas, is at the contact betweenplutonic intrusions and neighboring metamorphic rocks in the Biga Peninsula. This area is also controlled by anENE-WSW striking right lateral strike-slip fault segment representing the extension of the southern branch of theNorth Anatolian Fault to the west and is one of the geothermal fields with highest temperature in the Biga Peninsula.Kestanbol geothermal fluid from a well is used to heat facilities for thermal tourism and balneological purposes. The geothermal fluid continuously seeps in the environment with low flow rate and additionally, wastewater from thefacility is discharged in Ilıca stream. This study was conducted to determine the hydrochemical characteristics ofthe well and springs located in Kestanbol geothermal field and to evaluate the environmental effects of geothermalfluids on the soil and stream sediment. The temperature, electrical conductivity (EC) and pH of Kestanbol geothermalfluids are 59.5-74.1ºC, 30.3-35.5 mS/cm, and 6.45-6.71, respectively. The geothermal fluids are NaCl water type,with mean NaCl concentration of 19511 mg/L. In addition to higher EC values, and total dissolved solid content,Na+, Cl-, B, Ba, Fe and Mn concentrations of the Kestanbol geothermal fluid are above the tolerance limit of TS 266.Moreover, the geothermal fluid is heavily polluted water (class IV) according to the Turkish Inland Water QualityRegulations in terms of EC, Na+, Cl-, B and Fe. There is a scaling problem in the Kestanbol geothermal field. XRDand SEM-EDX analyses identified the minerals causing scale as calcite, halite and siderite. Arsenic, Fe and Mnconcentration of scale, soil and stream sediment samples are higher than the mean value of world continental crust.According to the enrichment factor and geoaccumulation index, the geothermal fluid with intense rock interactionenriches soil and stream sediment in terms of As and Mn metal(loid)s as a result of discharge. It is recommended thatgeothermal fluids and waste waters from the facility should not be discharged in the soil and Ilıca stream.

Abstract: In this study, total lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), arsenic (As) andaluminum (Al) contents were investigated in surface sediments in order to determine the current pollution inGüllük Bay, which has dense population in summer, low population in winter, and a thermal power plant in thevicinity. For this purpose, surface sediments were collected from the bay seasonally in 2011 and 2012. Strong acid(HNO3+HF+HClO4) digestion was used for metal analysis after drying in a freeze-dryer. Total metal concentrationswere measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The total metal contents changed between 1 and 209 µg/g;10 and 259 µg/g; 1 and 59 µg/g; 0.1 and 46 µg/g; <0.01 and 2.8 µg/g, <0.01 and 0.4 µg/g and 0.6% and 5.9% forPb, Zn, Cu, Cr, Cd, As and Al, respectively. Cu, Cr and As concentrations were lower than the background values,contrary to higher Pb, Cd and Zn contents in bay surface sediments during all sampling periods. These high metalvalues indicate the presence of anthropogenic (domestic and industrial) inputs via Sarıçay creek and both maritimetransport and tourism waste in Güllük Bay. As a result, it was found that population growth and human activitiesaffected metal contamination.

Abstract: The Karaali Geothermal field, one of the geothermal areas in Turkey is located 45 km south-east ofŞanlıurfa province in southeastern Anatolia. It also covers the area including Karaali village within the Akçakale graben. In addition, Karaali geothermal area is of great importance for Şanlıurfa not only because of thermal tourism and being a greenhouse heating source, but also because it is located in the Harran Plain which has very important agricultural potential for the development of Turkey. In recent studies, direct/indirect uncontrolleddischarge of geothermal waters in the nearest drainage channels was shown to adversely affect soil and plantsin terms of heavy metal contamination This study aims to determine the direct and indirect exposure to heavy metalpollution originating in geothermal waters with respect to human health. Seasonal sampling was carried out between February - October 2018 at 6 points in total, including the drainage channels (D9, D10, D11, D12 and D13) in thevicinity of Karaali geothermal fluid (KJ). Heavy metal parameters were measured such as Al, As, Co, Cr, Fe, Mn,Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se and V. As a result, it was concluded that the sampling values exceed the values for Al, Cr, Fe,Mo, Ni, Se and V in the regulations that should be taken in consideration for the reuse of water in the drainagechannels. Additionally, in nearby 2 groundwater wells (K7 and K8), the limit values were exceeded for Al and Feparameters according to TSE 266, EPA and WHO drinking water criteria. Finally, heavy metal pollution in thedrainage channels affected the wells only in terms of Al and Fe. It was also concluded that the indirect exposureimpact due to heavy metal that is carried to soil, plants and groundwater by the re-use of irrigation water is moreserious for human health than direct exposure caused by groundwater consumption However, over a certain periodof time an increase in parameters exceeding the limit values in terms of heavy metal may also occur.

Abstract: Arsenic (As) contamination in water,  especially in groundwater, has led to major health problems. Dueto the recognition that As at low concentrations in potable water causes crucial health effects, As removal methodshave gained significant importance in recent years. In this study, As concentration was monitored in October and March in ten observation wells located in Harran Plain, which has the largest groundwater reserves in the MiddleEast. According to the analyses, there was no well that exceeded the limit for As concentration (10ppb). The results revealed that As concentrations in October were lower than in March. In March, the highest Asconcentration was observed in Yaygılı well with the value of 4.12 ppb. Ozanlar well had the lowest As concentrationwith the value of <0.5 ppb. In October, the highest As concentration was 2.39 ppb in Çamlıdere well. For Çamlıdereand Yaygılı wells, As removal methods (coagulation and flocculation, adsorption, membrane processes, advancedoxidation processes, electrocoagulation, biochar) were investigated and discussed. As a result of the assessment, itwas estimated that the best available As removal method could be biochar application considering its advantages.